Speaking Visual Learning the Language of Art Toledo Museum of Art

Overview of the Spanish language in the Us

United States Spanish
US Spanish
Español estadounidense
Native to	The states
Native speakers	41.8 meg (2019 American Customs Survey)^[ane]
Language family unit	Indo-European Italic Romance Western Ibero-Romance Due west Iberian Spanish United States Castilian
Early forms	Old Latin Classical Latin Vulgar Latin Old Castilian Early Modernistic Spanish
Writing system	Latin (Spanish alphabet)
Official condition
Regulated by	North American Academy of the Castilian Linguistic communication
Linguistic communication codes
ISO 639-1	`es`
ISO 639-2	`spa^[2]`
ISO 639-3	–
Glottolog	None
IETF	`es-US`
Per centum of the U.S. population aged 5 and over who speaks Castilian at home in 2019, past states.
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you lot may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, meet Help:IPA.

The Us has over 41 million people aged 5 or older who speak Spanish at home,^[i] making Spanish the second near speech in the United States. Spanish is the almost studied language other than English language in the U.s.a.,^[3] with nearly half dozen one thousand thousand students.^[4] With over 40 meg native speakers, heritage language speakers, and 2nd-language speakers, the United states of america has the second largest Castilian-speaking population in the world afterward Mexico, surpassing Spain itself.^[5] ^[6] About half of all United States Castilian speakers besides assessed themselves as speaking English "very well" in the 2000 Usa Census.^[7] That increased to 57% in the 2013–2017 American Community Survey.^[8] There is an Academy of the Spanish Language located in the United states of america as well.^[ix]

In the Us in that location are more speakers of Castilian than speakers of French, German, Italian, Portuguese, Hawaiian, the various varieties of Chinese, the Indo-Aryan languages, and the Native American languages combined. According to the 2019 American Community Survey conducted by the U.s.a. Census Agency, Spanish is spoken at habitation by 41.8 one thousand thousand people aged five or older, more than twice equally many as in 1990.^[ane]

Spanish has been spoken in what is now the United States since the 15th century, with the inflow of Castilian colonization in North America. Colonizers settled in areas that would later get Florida, Texas, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and California every bit well as in what is now the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. The Castilian explorers explored areas of 42 of the future US states leaving behind a varying range of Hispanic legacy in the North America. Western regions of the Louisiana Territory were also nether Spanish rule betwixt 1763 and 1800, after the French and Indian War, which further extended Spanish influences throughout what is at present the Us.

Afterward the incorporation of those areas into the U.s. in the get-go half of the 19th century, Spanish was after reinforced in the state past the acquisition of Puerto Rico in 1898. Waves of immigration from Mexico, Cuba, Venezuela, El Salvador, and elsewhere in Latin America have strengthened the prominence of Castilian in the country. Today, Hispanics are 1 of the fastest growing ethnic groups in the United States, which has increases the employ and importance of Spanish in the United States. However, there is a marked decline in the use of Spanish among Hispanics in America, declining from 78% in 2006 to 73% in 2015, with the trend accelerating as Hispanics undergo language shift to English.^[10]

History [edit]

Juan Ponce de León (Santervás de Campos, Valladolid, Kingdom of spain). He was one of the first Europeans to go far to the current United States because he led the first European expedition to Florida, which he named. Castilian was the first European linguistic communication spoken in the territory that is now the United States.

Early Spanish settlements [edit]

The Castilian arrived in what would later go the United States in 1493, with the Spanish arrival to Puerto Rico. Ponce de León explored Florida in 1513. In 1565, the Spaniards founded St. Augustine, Florida. The Spanish afterwards left only others moved in and it is the oldest continuously occupied European settlement in the continental United states of america. Juan Ponce de León founded San Juan, Puerto Rico, in 1508. Historically, the Spanish-speaking population increased considering of territorial annexation of lands claimed earlier by the Spanish Empire and by wars with Mexico and past land purchases.^[11] ^[12]

Spanish Louisiana [edit]

During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, land claimed by Spain encompassed a large role of the contemporary U.S. territory, including the French colony of Louisiana from 1769 to 1800. In order to further institute and defend Louisiana, Spanish Governor Bernardo de Gálvez recruited Canary Islanders to emigrate to Northward America.^[13] Betwixt November 1778 and July 1779, around 1600 Isleños arrived in New Orleans, and another group of nigh 300 came in 1783. Past 1780, the four Isleño communities were already founded. When Louisiana was sold to the United States, its Spanish, Creole and Cajun inhabitants became U.Southward. citizens, and continued to speak Spanish or French. In 1813, George Ticknor started a program of Spanish Studies at Harvard Academy.^[14] Spain also founded settlements along the Sabine River, to protect the edge with French Louisiana. The towns of Nacogdoches, Texas and Los Adaes were founded equally part of this settlement, and the people there spoke a dialect descended from rural Mexican Spanish, which is now almost completely extinct.^[15] Although it's commonly thought in Nacogdoches that the Hispanic residents of the Sabine River surface area are isleños ,^[16] their Spanish dialect is derived from rural Mexican Castilian, and their ancestors came from Mexico and other parts of Texas.^[17]

Annexation of Texas and the Mexican–American War [edit]

Spanish language heritage in Florida dates dorsum to 1565, with the founding of Saint Augustine, Florida. Castilian was the offset European language spoken in Florida.

In 1821,^[eighteen] afterwards United mexican states'south War of Independence from Espana, Texas was part of the United Mexican States as the state of Coahuila y Tejas. A large influx of Americans before long followed, originally with the approval of United mexican states'south president. In 1836, the now largely "American" Texans fought a war of independence from the central government of Mexico. The arrivals from the US objected to Mexico'south abolition of slavery. They declared independence and established the Republic of Texas. In 1846, the Commonwealth dissolved when Texas entered the U.s.a. of America as a country. By 1850, fewer than 16,000 or 7.5% of Texans were of Mexican descent, Spanish-speaking people (both Mexicans and non-Castilian European settlers, including High german Texans) were outnumbered vi to one by English language-speaking settlers (both Americans and other immigrant Europeans).^{[ citation needed ]}

After the Mexican War of Independence from Spain, California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, western Colorado and southwestern Wyoming also became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. Well-nigh of New Mexico, western Texas, southern Colorado, southwestern Kansas, and the Oklahoma panhandle were part of the territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. The geographical isolation and unique political history of this territory led to New Mexican Castilian differing notably from both Spanish spoken in other parts of the United states of america of America and Spanish spoken in the present-mean solar day United mexican states.

United mexican states lost almost half of the northern territory gained from Kingdom of spain in 1821 to the United States in the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). This included parts of contemporary Texas, and Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Wyoming, California, Nevada, and Utah. Although the lost territory was sparsely populated, the thousands of Spanish-speaking Mexicans afterward became U.S. citizens. The war-catastrophe Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) does not explicitly accost language. Although Castilian initially continued to be used in schools and government, the English-speaking American settlers who entered the Southwest established their language, culture, and police as dominant, displacing Spanish in the public sphere.^[xix]

The California experience is illustrative. The first California constitutional convention in 1849 had eight Californio participants; the resulting land constitution was produced in English and Castilian, and it independent a clause requiring all published laws and regulations to be published in both languages.^[20] 1 of the first acts of the first California Legislature of 1850 was to authorize the engagement of a State Translator, who would exist responsible for translating all country laws, decrees, documents, or orders into Spanish.^[21] ^[22]

Such magnanimity did not concluding very long. As early as February 1850, California adopted the Anglo-American common law equally the basis of the new country'south legal organisation.^[23] In 1855, California alleged that English language would be the only medium of didactics in its schools.^[fourteen] These policies were one fashion of ensuring the social and political dominance of Anglos.^[xi]

The land's 2d constitutional convention in 1872 had no Spanish-speaking participants; the convention'southward English language-speaking participants felt that the land's remaining minority of Spanish-speakers should only acquire English; and the convention ultimately voted 46–39 to revise the earlier clause so that all official proceedings would henceforth be published only in English.^[20]

Spanish–American War (1898) [edit]

In 1898, consequent to the Spanish–American War, the United States took control of Republic of cuba and Puerto Rico, the Philippines and Guam as American territories. In 1902, Cuba became independent from the U.s., while Puerto Rico remained a U.S. territory. The American government required government services to be bilingual in Spanish and English, and attempted to innovate English language-medium education to Puerto Rico, but the latter endeavor was unsuccessful.^[24]

One time Puerto Rico was granted autonomy in 1948, even mainlander officials who came to Puerto Rico were forced to learn Castilian. Just 20% of Puerto Rico's residents understand English language, and although the island'due south government had a policy of official bilingualism, it was repealed in favor of a Spanish-merely policy in 1991. This policy was reversed in 1993 when a pro-statehood party ousted a pro-independence party from the commonwealth government.^[24]

Hispanics as the largest minority in the United States [edit]

The relatively recent merely large influx of Castilian-speakers to the United States has increased the overall total of Spanish-speakers in the country. They class majorities and large minorities in many political districts, especially in California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas (the American states bordering United mexican states), and also in South Florida.

Mexicans beginning moved to the United States equally refugees in the turmoil of the Mexican Revolution from 1910–1917, but many more emigrated later for economic reasons. The large bulk of Mexicans are in the erstwhile Mexican-controlled areas in the Southwest. From 1942 to 1962, the Bracero plan would provide for mass Mexican migration to the United States.^[14]

At over five million, Puerto Ricans are easily the second largest Hispanic group. Of all major Hispanic groups, Puerto Ricans are the least likely to be adept in Castilian, but millions of Puerto Rican Americans living in the U.S. mainland are fluent in Castilian. Puerto Ricans are natural-born U.Due south. citizens, and many Puerto Ricans have migrated to New York City, Orlando, Philadelphia, and other areas of the Eastern United States, increasing the Spanish-speaking populations and in some areas being the majority of the Hispanophone population, especially in Central Florida. In Hawaii, where Puerto Rican farm laborers and Mexican ranchers have settled since the late 19th century, seven percent of the islands' people are either Hispanic or Hispanophone or both.

The Cuban Revolution of 1959 created a customs of Cuban exiles who opposed the Communist revolution, many of whom left for the United States. In 1963, the Ford Foundation established the offset bilingual education program in the United states of america for the children of Cuban exiles in Miami-Dade County, Florida. The Immigration and Nationality Human action of 1965 additional immigration from Latin American countries, and in 1968, Congress passed the Bilingual Education Human action.^[14] Virtually of these 1 one thousand thousand Cuban Americans settled in southern and central Florida, while other Cubans alive in the Northeastern United States; most are fluent in Spanish. In the city of Miami today Spanish is the start linguistic communication generally due to Cuban immigration. Too, the Nicaraguan Revolution and subsequent Contra State of war created a migration of Nicaraguans fleeing the Sandinista authorities and ceremonious war to the United States in the tardily 1980s.^[25] Near of these Nicaraguans migrated to Florida and California.^[26]

The exodus of Salvadorans was a result of both economical and political bug. The largest immigration moving ridge occurred as a effect of the Salvadoran Ceremonious War in the 1980s, in which 20 to 30 per centum of El Salvador's population emigrated. About 50 percent, or up to 500,000 of those who escaped, headed to the Usa, which was already home to over 10,000 Salvadorans, making Salvadoran Americans the fourth-largest Hispanic and Latino American group, after the Mexican-American majority, stateside Puerto Ricans, and Cubans.

As civil wars engulfed several Central American countries in the 1980s, hundreds of thousands of Salvadorans fled their country and came to the Us. Between 1980 and 1990, the Salvadoran immigrant population in the United States increased nearly fivefold from 94,000 to 465,000. The number of Salvadoran immigrants in the United States continued to grow in the 1990s and 2000s as a upshot of family reunification and new arrivals fleeing a serial of natural disasters that hit El Salvador, including earthquakes and hurricanes. By 2008, there were virtually 1.i one thousand thousand Salvadoran immigrants in the United States.

Until the 20th century, at that place was no clear record of the number of Venezuelans who emigrated to the Us. Betwixt the 18th and early 19th centuries, at that place were many European immigrants who went to Venezuela, but to later migrate to the United States along with their children and grandchildren who were built-in and/or grew upwardly in Venezuela speaking Castilian. From 1910 to 1930, it is estimated that over 4,000 South Americans each year emigrated to the United States; however, there are few specific figures indicating these statistics. Many Venezuelans settled in the United states with hopes of receiving a amend education, only to remain at that place post-obit graduation. They are often joined by relatives. Withal, since the early 1980s, the reasons for Venezuelan emigration take changed to include hopes of earning a college bacon and due to the economic fluctuations in Venezuela which as well promoted an important migration of Venezuelan professionals to the US.^[27] In the 2000s, dissident Venezuelans migrated to South Florida, especially the suburbs of Doral and Weston.^[28] Other chief states with Venezuelan American populations are, co-ordinate to the 1990 demography, New York, California, Texas (adding to their existing Hispanic populations), New Jersey, Massachusetts and Maryland.^[27]

Refugees from Spain likewise migrated to the U.South. due to the Spanish Civil State of war (1936–1939) and political instability nether the authorities of Francisco Franco that lasted until 1975. The majority of Spaniards settled in Florida, Texas, California, New Jersey, New York Urban center, Chicago, and Puerto Rico.

The publication of data by the United States Census Agency in 2003 revealed that Hispanics were the largest minority in the U.s. and caused a flurry of press speculation in Espana about the position of Castilian in the Usa.^{[ citation needed ]} That year, the Instituto Cervantes, an organisation created by the Spanish government in 1991 to promote Castilian linguistic communication effectually the globe, established a branch in New York.^[29]

Historical demographics [edit]

Spanish-speakers in the The states
Yr	Number of native Castilian-speakers	Percent of US population
1980	xi million	v%
1990	17.3 1000000	7%
2000	28.1 million	10%
2010	37 million	13%
2015	41 million	13%
Sources:^[30] ^[31] ^[32] ^[33]

In full, there were 36,995,602 people anile five or older in the U.s. who spoke Spanish at home (12.eight% of the total U.S. population) according to the 2010 census.^[34]

Electric current condition [edit]

Public elementary schoolhouse sign in Spanish in Memphis, Tennessee (although in Spanish, December and JAN would be DIC and ENE respectively).

Although the United States has no de jure official language, English is the dominant language of business, education, government, religion, media, culture, and the public sphere. Virtually all state and federal regime agencies and big corporations utilize English equally their internal working language, specially at the management level. Some states, such as Arizona, California, Florida, New Mexico, and Texas provide bilingual legislated notices and official documents in Spanish and English language and in other commonly-used languages. English is the domicile linguistic communication of well-nigh Americans, including a growing proportion of Hispanics. Between 2000 and 2015, the proportion of Hispanics who spoke Spanish at home decreased from 78 to 73 percentage.^[35] As noted above, the only major exception is the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico in which Castilian is the official and the most usually-used language.

Throughout the history of the Southwest United States, the controversial consequence of language as part of cultural rights and bilingual state government representation has caused sociocultural friction between Anglophones and Hispanophones. Spanish is now the nearly widely-taught 2nd language in the United States.^[36]

Possibly at least partially as a result of a language barrier, children from Castilian-speaking households in the United States feel 50% higher rates of obesity than those in English-speaking households, according to the U.Southward. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Families may non take access to health instruction materials or resources in Spanish, and food labels are typically in English only.^[37] ^[38]

California [edit]

California's start constitution recognized Castilian-language rights:

All laws, decrees, regulations, and provisions emanating from whatsoever of the three supreme powers of this State, which from their nature crave publication, shall exist published in English and Castilian.

By 1870, English-speakers were a majority in California; in 1879, the state promulgated a new constitution with a clause nether which all official proceedings were to be conducted exclusively in English, which remained in effect until 1966. In 1986, California voters added a new ramble clause past referendum:

English is the official language of the State of California.

—California Constitution, Art. iii, Sec. vi

Spanish remains widely spoken throughout the state, and many authorities forms, documents, and services are bilingual in English and Castilian. Although all official proceedings are to exist conducted in English:

A person unable to understand English who is charged with a crime has a right to an interpreter throughout the proceedings.

—California Constitution, Art. 1. Sec. 14

Arizona [edit]

The state, like its neighbors in the Southwest, has had close linguistic and cultural ties with United mexican states. The land, except for the 1853 Gadsden Purchase, was part of the New Mexico Territory until 1863, when the western half was made into Arizona Territory. The surface area of the former Gadsden Buy spoke generally Castilian until the 1940s although the Tucson area had a college ratio of anglophones (including Mexican Americans who were fluent in English). The continuous arrival of Mexican settlers increases the number of Castilian-speakers.

Florida [edit]

La Época is an upscale Miami department shop, whose Spanish name comes from Cuba. La Época is an example of the many businesses started and owned by Spanish-speakers in the Usa.

First settled by the Castilian in the 16th century, 19% of Floridians now speak Castilian, which is the about widely taught second language. In Miami, 67% of residents spoke Castilian every bit their start language in 2000.

Most of the residents of the Miami metropolitan surface area speak Castilian at home, and the influence of Spanish tin can even exist seen in many features of the local dialect of English language. Miami is considered the "capital of Latin The states" for its many bilingual corporations, banks, and media outlets that cater to international business. In addition, there are several other major cities in Florida with a sizable pct of the population able to speak Castilian, nearly notably Tampa (18%) and Orlando (16.6%). Ybor City, a historical neighborhood close to Downtown Tampa, was founded and is populated importantly by Castilian and Cuban immigrants. Most Latinos in Florida are of Cuban (particularly in Miami and Tampa) or Puerto Rican (Miami and Orlando) ancestry, followed by Mexican (Tampa and Fort Myers/Naples) and Colombian ancestry.^{[ citation needed ]}

New Mexico [edit]

New Mexico is commonly thought to have Spanish as an official language aslope English language because of its broad usage and legal promotion of Spanish in the state; however, the country has no official language. New Mexico'south laws are promulgated in both Spanish and English language. English is the state government's newspaper working language, only government business is oft conducted in Castilian, particularly at the local level.^{[ citation needed ]} Spanish has been spoken in New Mexico since the 16th century.^[39]

Because of its relative isolation from other Spanish-speaking areas over most of its 400-year being, New Mexico Spanish, particularly the Spanish of northern New Mexico and Colorado has retained many elements of 16th- and 17th-century Spanish lost in other varieties and has developed its own vocabulary.^[xl] In addition, information technology contains many words from Nahuatl, the language that is withal spoken by the Nahua people in Mexico. New Mexican Spanish as well contains loanwords from the Pueblo languages of the upper Rio Grande Valley, Mexican-Spanish words (mexicanismos), and borrowings from English.^[40] Grammatical changes include the loss of the second-person plural verb form, changes in verb endings, peculiarly in the preterite, and the partial merger of the 2d and third conjugations.^[41]

Texas [edit]

In Texas, English is the state'due south de facto official language although it lacks de jure status and is used in authorities. Nevertheless, the continual influx of Spanish-speaking immigrants has increased the import of Spanish in Texas. Although information technology is a function of the Southern Us, Texas's counties bordering Mexico are by and large Hispanic and then Spanish is commonly spoken in the region. The Texas government, in Section 2054.116 of the Government Code, mandates providing by land agencies of data on their websites in Spanish to assistance residents who have limited English proficiency.^[42]

Kansas [edit]

Castilian has been spoken in the state of Kansas since at least the early 1900s, primarily because of several waves of immigration from Mexico. That began with refugees fleeing the Mexican Revolution (c. 1910–1920).^[43] There are now several towns in Kansas with significant Spanish-speaking populations: Liberal, Garden City, and Dodge City all have Latino populations over 40%.^[44] ^[45] ^[46] Recently, linguists working with the Kansas Speaks Project have shown how high numbers of Spanish-speaking residents have influenced the dialect of English spoken in areas like Liberal and in other parts of southwest Kansas.^[47] In that location are many Castilian-linguistic communication radio stations throughout Kansas, like KYYS in the Kansas City area every bit well as various Spanish-linguistic communication newspapers and tv stations throughout the state.^[48] Several towns in Kansas boast Spanish-English dual language immersion schools in which students are instructed in both languages for varying amounts of time. Examples include Horace Isle of mann Uncomplicated in Wichita, named later the famous educational reformer, and Buffalo Jones Uncomplicated in Garden Metropolis, named after Charles "Buffalo" Jones, a frontiersman, bison preservationist, and cofounder of Garden Metropolis.

Puerto Rico [edit]

The Republic of Puerto Rico recognizes Spanish and English as official languages, just Spanish is the dominant first language. This is largely due to the fact that the territory was under Spanish control for 400 years, and was inhabited past mainly Spanish-speaking settlers prior to existence ceded to the U.s.a. in 1898.

Place names [edit]

Because much of the US was once under Spanish, and later on Mexican sovereignty, many places have Spanish names dating to these times. These include the names of several states and major cities. Some of these names preserve older features of Spanish orthography, such as San Ysidro, which would exist Isidro in modern Spanish. Later, many other names were created in the American catamenia by non-Spanish speakers, often violating Spanish syntax. This includes names such every bit Sierra Vista.

Learning trends [edit]

In 1917, the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese was founded, and the academic study of Spanish literature was helped past negative attitudes towards High german due to World State of war I.^[49]

Spanish is currently the virtually widely taught language after English in American secondary schools and college educational activity.^[l] More than than 790,000 university students were enrolled in Spanish courses in the fall of 2013, with Spanish the near widely taught strange language in American colleges and universities. Some l.6% of the over ane.5 million U.S. students enrolled in foreign-linguistic communication courses took Castilian, followed by French (12.7%), American Sign Language (seven%), German (5.v%), Italian (4.6%), Japanese (four.iii%), Chinese (iii.9%), Arabic (2.1%), and Latin (one.7%). These totals remain relatively modest in relation to the total U.Southward. population.^[51]

Radio and media [edit]

Univisión is the country'south largest Spanish language network, followed past Telemundo. It is the country's fourth-largest network overall.^[52]

Spanish language radio is the largest not-English broadcasting media.^[53] While strange language broadcasting declined steadily, Castilian broadcasting grew steadily from the 1920s to the 1970s.

The 1930s were boom years.^[54] The early success depended on the concentrated geographical audience in Texas and the Southwest.^[55] American stations were close to Mexico, which enabled a steady circular flow of entertainers, executives and technicians and stimulated the artistic initiatives of Hispanic radio executives, brokers, and advertisers. Ownership was increasingly full-bodied in the 1960s and 1970s. The industry sponsored the at present-defunct trade publication Sponsor from the late 1940s to 1968.^[56] Spanish-linguistic communication radio has influenced American and Latino discourse on key current affairs issues such as citizenship and clearing.^[57]

Variation [edit]

There is a great diverseness of accents of Castilian in the U.s.a..^[58] The influence of English on American Spanish is very important. In many Latino^[59] (also called Hispanic) youth subcultures, it is mutual to mix Castilian and English to produce Spanglish, a term for code-switching between English and Spanish, or for Spanish with heavy English influence.

The Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española (Northward American Academy of the Spanish Language) tracks the developments of the Spanish spoken in the Us^[60] and the influences of English.^[61] ^[62]

Varieties [edit]

Linguists distinguish the following varieties of the Spanish spoken in the United States:

Mexican Castilian: the US–Mexico border, throughout the Southwest from California to Texas, as well every bit in Chicago, merely becoming ubiquitous throughout the Continental United states. Standard Mexican Spanish is often used and taught as the standard dialect of Spanish in the Continental United States.^[63] ^[64]
Caribbean Spanish: Spanish equally spoken by Puerto Ricans, Cubans, and Dominicans. It is largely heard throughout the Northeast and Florida, especially New York Urban center and Miami, and in other cities in the Eastward.
Central American Castilian: Castilian as spoken by Hispanics with origins in Central American countries such every bit El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa rica, and Panama. It is largely heard in major cities throughout California and Texas, as well as Washington, DC; New York; and Miami.
Due south American Spanish: Spanish as spoken by Hispanics with origins in South American countries such as Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Chile, and Bolivia. It is largely heard in major cities throughout New York State, California, Texas, and Florida.
Colonial Spanish: Castilian as spoken by descendants of Castilian colonists and early on Mexicans before the Usa expanded and annexed the Southwest and other areas.
- Californian (1769–present): California, especially the Key Coast
- Isleño Spanish (1783–nowadays): St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana
- Sabine River Spanish: Parts of Sabine and Natchitoches Parishes, Louisiana, and the Moral community w of Nacogdoches. Moribund, originated from rural Mexican Castilian.
- New Mexican Spanish: Fundamental and north-central New Mexico and south-central Colorado and the border regions of Arizona, Texas, and New Mexico, and southeastern Colorado

Many Spanish speakers in the US speak it as a heritage language. Many of these heritage speakers are semi-speakers, or transitional bilinguals, which means they spoke Spanish in early babyhood but largely switched to an English-speaking environment. They typically have a potent passive command of the language, only never fully acquired information technology. Other, fluent heritage speakers have non undergone such a full shift from Spanish to English in their immediate family.

Transitional bilinguals oftentimes produce errors which are rarely found amidst native Spanish speakers but which are mutual among second-linguistic communication learners. Transitional bilinguals often face difficulties in Spanish classrooms since teaching materials designed for English monolinguals and those designed for fluent heritage speakers are both inadequate.^[65] ^[66]

Heritage speakers in full general have a native or near-native phonology.^[67] ^[68] ^[69]

Dialect contact [edit]

Spanish in the Usa shows mixing and dialect leveling between different varieties of Castilian in large cities with Hispanics of unlike origins.^[70] ^[71] For instance, Salvadorans in Houston show a shift towards lowered rates of /s/ reduction,^[72] due to contact with the larger number of Mexican speakers and the depression prestige of Salvadoran Spanish.

Los Angeles has its own vernacular Castilian variety, the effect of dialect leveling between speakers of different, mainly primal Mexican varieties. The children of Salvadoran parents who abound up in Los Angeles typically grow up speaking this variety.^[64] Other cities may accept their own colloquial Spanish varieties equally well.^[73]

Mutual English words derived from Spanish [edit]

Many standard American English words are of Spanish etymology, or originate from third languages simply entered English via Spanish.

Admiral
Avocado ( aguacate from Nahuatl aguacatl )
Aficionado
Banana (originally from Wolof)
Buckaroo ( vaquero )
Deli ( cafetería )
Chili (from Nahuatl chīlli )
Chocolate (from Nahuatl xocolatl )
Cigar ( cigarro )
Corral
Coyote (from Nahuatl coyotl )
Desperado ( desesperado )
Guerrilla
Guitar ( guitarra )
Hurricane ( huracán from the Taíno storm god Juracán)
Junta
Lasso ( lazo )
Patio
Potato ( patata ; come across Etymology of "tater")
Ranch ( rancho )
Rodeo
Siesta
Lycopersicon esculentum ( tomate from Nahuatl tomatl )
Tornado
Vanilla ( vainilla )

Phonology [edit]

Spanish in the US oft has some phonological influence from English language. For example, bilinguals who grew upwardly in the Mesilla Valley in southern New Mexico most frequently pronounce ⟨r⟩ equally a tap [ɾ] instead of a trilled [r] when it comes at the beginning of a word or later a consonant. Even in word-medial position ⟨rr⟩ is frequently pronounced equally a tap. The utilise of a trill is even less frequent in northern New United mexican states, where contact with monolingual Mexican Spanish is bottom.^[74]

[v] has been reported equally an allophone of /b/ in Chicano Spanish in the Southwest, both when spelled ⟨b⟩ and when spelled ⟨v⟩. This is primarily due to English influence.^[75] ^[76] ^[77] Although Mexican Spanish generally pronounces /x/ as a velar fricative, Chicano Castilian oft realizes it as a glottal [h], like English's h audio. In add-on, /d/ may occasionally exist realized as a fricative in initial position.^[76]

Much of the variation in US Spanish pronunciation reflects the differences between other Castilian dialects and varieties:

Similar in well-nigh of Hispanic America, ⟨z⟩ and ⟨c⟩ (earlier /east/ and /i/) are pronounced as [s], merely like ⟨south⟩. However, seseo (non distinguishing /s/ from /θ/) is besides typical of the speech of Hispanic Americans of Andalusian and Canarian descent. Also, the English pronunciation of soft c helps to entrench seseo even though /θ/ occurs in English.
Castilian in Kingdom of spain, especially the regions with a distinctive /θ/ phoneme, pronounces /s/ with the tip of tongue confronting the alveolar ridge. Phonetically, that is an "apico-alveolar" "grave" sibilant [s̺], with a weak "hushing" sound that is reminiscent of retroflex fricatives. In the Americas and in Andalusia and the Canary Islands, both in Kingdom of spain, Standard European Castilian /s/ may sound similar to [ʃ] like English sh as in she. However, that apico-alveolar realization of /s/ is common in some Latin American Spanish dialects which lack [θ]. Some inland Colombian Spanish, particularly Antioquia, and Andean regions of Republic of peru and Bolivia besides have an apico-alveolar /south/.
American Spanish ordinarily features yeísmo, with no distinction between ⟨ll⟩ and ⟨y⟩, and both are pronounced [ʝ]. However, yeísmo is an expanding and at present a ascendant feature of European Spanish, especially in urban spoken communication (Madrid, Toledo) and especially in Andalusia and the Canary Islands, but [ʎ] has been preserved in some rural areas of northern Spain. Speakers of Rioplatense Castilian pronounce both ⟨ll⟩ and ⟨y⟩ equally [ʒ] or [ʃ]. The traditional pronunciation of the digraph ⟨ll⟩, [ʎ], is preserved in some dialects forth the Andes range, peculiarly in inland Republic of peru and the highlands of Colombia highlands, northern Argentina, and all of Bolivia and Paraguay.
Most speakers with ancestors born in the coastal regions may debuccalize or aspirate syllable-final /s/ to [h] or entirely drop; this, está [esˈta] ("s/he is") sounds like [ehˈta] or [eˈta], as in southern Kingdom of spain (Andalusia, Murcia, Castile–La Mancha (except the northeastern part), Canary Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla).
⟨k⟩ (before /e/ or /i/) and ⟨j⟩ are usually aspirated to [h] in Caribbean and other coastal dialects as well as in Republic of colombia, southern Mexico, and most of southern Espana. While it may be [x] in other dialects of the Americas and often [χ] in Peru, that is a common feature of Castilian Spanish. It is usually aspirated to [h], like in most of southwestern Espana. Very oftentimes, especially in Argentine republic and Chile, [x] becomes more fronted [ç] before loftier vowels /e, i/ and and so approaches [ten] the realization of German language ⟨ch⟩ in ich. In other phonological environments, information technology is realized as either [x] or [h].
In many Caribbean dialects, the phonemes /50/ and /r/ tin be exchanged or sound alike at the end of a syllable: caldo > ca[r]practice, cardo > ca[l]do. At the stop of words, /r/ becomes silent, which gives Caribbean Spanish a partial non-rhoticity. That occurs left ofttimes happens as well in Ecuador and Chile^{[ commendation needed ]} and is a feature brought from Extremadura and westernmost Andalusia, in Spain.
In many Andean regions, the alveolar trill of rata and carro is realized equally an alveolar approximant [ɹ] or even a voiced apico-alveolar [z]. The alveolar approximant is specially associated with an indigenous substrate and is quite mutual in Andean regions, specially in inland Ecuador, Peru, near of Bolivia, and parts of northern Argentina and Paraguay.
In Puerto Rico, besides [ɾ], [r], and [l], syllable-last /r/ can be realized as [ɹ], an influence of American English language: "verso"' (poesy) tin can become [ˈbeɹso], besides [ˈbeɾso], [ˈberso], or [ˈbelso]; "invierno" (winter) can become [imˈbjeɹno], bated from [imˈbjeɾno], [imˈbjerno], or [imˈbjelno]; and "escarlata" (red) can become [ehkaɹˈlata], bated from [ehkaɾˈlata], [ehkarˈlata], or [ehkaˈlata]. Word-finally, /r/ is commonly one of the post-obit:
- a trill, a tap, approximant, [l], or silent earlier a consonant or a pause, as in amo [r ~ ɾ ~ ɹ ~ l] paterno 'paternal dear', and amor [aˈmo],
- a tap, approximant, or [l] before a vowel-initial discussion, every bit in amo [ɾ ~ ɹ ~ l] and eterno 'eternal honey').
Voiced consonants /b/, /d/, and /ɡ/ are pronounced as plosives afterwards and sometimes earlier any consonant in virtually Colombian Spanish dialects (rather than the fricative or approximant characteristic of most other dialects), equally in pardo [ˈpaɾdo], barba [ˈbaɾba], algo [ˈalɡo], peligro [peˈliɡɾo], desde [ˈdezdeastward/ˈdeɦde], rather than [ˈpaɾðo], [ˈbaɾβa], [ˈalɣo], [peˈliɣɾo], [ˈdezðe/ˈdeɦðe]. A notable exception is the Nariño Section and most Costeño oral communication (Atlantic coastal dialects), which characteristic the soft fricatives that are common to all other Hispanic American and European dialects.
Word-finally, /n/ is frequently velar [ŋ] in Latin American Castilian and pan (breadstuff) is oft pronounced ['paŋ]. To an English language-speaker, the /n/ makes pan sound like pang. Velarization of word-final /n/ is then widespread in the Americas that just a few regions maintain the alveolar, /north/, equally in Europe: most of Mexico, Colombia (except for coastal dialects), and Argentina (except for some northern regions). Elsewhere, velarization is common although alveolar word-final /due north/ appears among some educated speakers, especially in the media or in singing. Velar word-final /north/ is likewise frequent in Spain, peculiarly in the South (Andalusia and the Canary Islands) and in the Northwest: Galicia, Asturias, and León.

Vocabulary and grammar [edit]

The vocabulary and grammar of US Spanish reverberate English influence, accelerated alter, and the Latin American roots of most US Spanish. Ane example of English language influence is that the usage of Castilian words past American bilinguals shows a convergence of semantics between English language and Spanish cognates. For example, the Spanish words atender ("to pay attention to") and éxito ("success") take acquired a like semantic range in American Spanish to the English words "attend" and "exit." In some cases, loanwords from English turn existing Spanish words into homonyms: coche has come to acquire the boosted meaning of "motorbus" in the Usa, it retains its older meaning of "car."^[78] Other phenomena include:

Loan translations such as correr para 'to run for', aplicar para 'to apply for', and soñar de instead of soñar con 'to dream of' frequently occur.^[79]
Expressions with patrás , such as llamar patrás , are widespread. Though these announced to exist calques, they likely represent a semantic extension.^[79]
Spanish speakers in the US tend to use estar more than often instead of ser . This is an extension of an ongoing trend within Castilian, since historically estar was used far less frequently.^[eighty] For more data, run across Spanish copulas.
Castilian speakers in the southwest tend to utilize the morphological time to come tense exclusively to express grammatical mood. The periphrastic construction ' ir + a + infinitive' is used for speaking virtually events that volition occur in the future.^[81]
Spanish-speakers who are more proficient in English tend to utilise the subjunctive mood less oft, as are those who are less educated in Spanish, reflecting variation in monolingual Spanish.^[82]
Disappearance of de (of) in certain expressions, as is the instance with Canarian Castilian: esposo Rosa for esposo de Rosa, gofio millo for gofio de millo, etc.^{[ commendation needed ]}
Doublets of Arabic-Latin synonyms, with the Standard arabic form being more than mutual in American Spanish, which derives from Latin American Spanish and and then is influenced by Andalusian Spanish, like Andalusian and Latin American alcoba for standard peninsular habitación or dormitorio ('bedroom') or alhaja for standard joya ('jewel').^{[ citation needed ]}
See List of words having dissimilar meanings in Spain and Hispanic America.

Future [edit]

Castilian-speakers are the fastest growing linguistic group in the Usa. Continued immigration and the prevalent Spanish-language mass media (such as Univisión, Telemundo, and Azteca América) support Spanish-speakers. Moreover, the North American Complimentary Trade Agreement makes many American manufacturers use multilingual production labeling in English, French, and Spanish, three of the four official languages of the Organization of American States (the other is Portuguese).

Also the businesses that always have catered to Hispanophone immigrants, a small only increasing number of mainstream American retailers now advertise bilingually in Spanish-speaking areas and offer bilingual customer services. I common indicator of such businesses is Se Habla Español, which ways "Spanish Is Spoken".

The almanac State of the Union Accost and other presidential speeches are translated into Spanish, following the precedent set by Nib Clinton'south administration. Moreover, non-Hispanic American origin politicians fluent in Spanish speak in Spanish to Hispanic-majority constituencies. In that location are 500 Spanish newspapers, 152 magazines, and 205 publishers in the The states. Magazine and local boob tube advertising expenditures for the Hispanic market place accept increased substantially from 1999 to 2003, with growth of 58 percent and 43 percent, respectively.

Historically, immigrants' languages tend to disappear or to be reduced by generational assimilation. Spanish disappeared in several countries and United states of america territories during the 20th century, notably in the Philippines and in the Pacific Island countries of Guam, Micronesia, Palau, the Northern Marianas islands, and the Marshall Islands.

The English-only movement seeks to establish English language every bit the sole official linguistic communication of the The states. Generally, they exert political public pressure upon Hispanophone immigrants to learn English and speak it publicly. As universities, business, and the professions use English language, there is much social pressure to larn English for upwards socio-economic mobility.

More often than not, Hispanics (xiii.4% of the 2002 US population) are bilingual to a degree. A Simmons Market Enquiry survey recorded that xix percent of Hispanics speak only Spanish, ix percent speak only English, 55 pct take limited English language proficiency, and 17 percent are fully English-Castilian bilingual.^[83]

Intergenerational transmission of Castilian is a more accurate indicator of Spanish's future in the United states than raw statistical numbers of Hispanophone immigrants. Although Hispanics hold varying English proficiency levels, almost all second-generation Hispanics speak English, but most 50 per centum speak Spanish at home. Two thirds of tertiary-generation Mexican Americans speak only English at home. Calvin Veltman undertook in 1988, for the National Center for Instruction Statistics and for the Hispanic Policy Development Project, the virtually complete report of Anglicization by Hispanophone immigrants. Veltman'south linguistic communication shift studies document abandonment of Castilian at rates of 40 percent for immigrants who arrived in the Us earlier the age of 14, and 70 percentage for immigrants who arrived before the age of ten.^[84] The complete set of the studies' demographic projections postulates the near-complete absorption of a given Hispanophone immigrant cohort within two generations. Although his study based itself upon a large 1976 sample from the Bureau of the Demography, which has non been repeated, data from the 1990 census tend to confirm the bang-up Anglicization of the Hispanic population.

Literature [edit]

American literature in Spanish dates back to 1610 when a Spanish explorer Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá first published his epic poem History of New Mexico.^[85] However, information technology was not until the late 20th century that Spanish, Spanglish, and bilingual poetry, plays, novels, and essays were readily bachelor on the market through independent, trade, and commercial publishing houses and theaters. Cultural theorist Christopher González identifies Latina/o authors—such every bit Oscar "Zeta" Acosta, Gloria Anzaldúa, Piri Thomas, Gilbert Hernandez, Sandra Cisneros, and Junot Díaz—every bit having written innovative works that created new audiences for Hispanic Literature in the Usa.^[86] ^[87]

Come across also [edit]

List of most commonly learned foreign languages in the United states of america
List of U.S. cities with diacritics
List of U.S. communities with Hispanic majority populations
List of Spanish-linguistic communication newspapers published in the The states
Biennial bookish conference of Spanish in the United States

General:

Bilingual education
Spanglish
Spanish language in the Americas
Castilian language in science and technology
List of vernacular expressions in Honduras
Spanish language in the Philippines
History of the Castilian language
Languages in the United States

References [edit]

^ ^a ^b ^c "Explore Census Data".
^ "ISO 639-ii Language Code search". Library of Congress . Retrieved 22 June 2019.
^ "Us has more Spanish speakers than Spain". theguardian.com . Retrieved 2016-05-09 .
^ Instituto Cervantes' Yearbook 2006–07. (PDF). Retrieved on 2011-12-31
^ "Más 'speak castilian' que en España". Retrieved 2007-10-06 . (Spanish)
^ How Many People Speak Spanish, And Where Is Information technology Spoken? Published past Babbel Retrieved 28 April 2018
^ "2000 Demography, Language in the US" (PDF) . Retrieved June 5, 2007.
^ [1] Archived 2020-02-14 at annal.today American Community Survey, Language Spoken at Habitation past Power to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over(Table B16001) 2013–2017 v-twelvemonth estimates]
^ "Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española". Retrieved July thirteen, 2018.
^ "Castilian speaking declines for Hispanics in U.South. Metro areas".
^ ^a ^b Fuller, Janet One thousand.; Leeman, Jennifer (2020). Speaking Spanish in the US : the sociopolitics of language (2nd ed.). Bristol, UK. ISBN978-1-78892-831-one. OCLC 1139025339.
^ David J. Weber, Spanish Frontier in N America (Yale Upward, 1992) ch 1-5.
^ Santana Pérez; Juan Manuel (1992). Emigración por reclutamientos: canarios en Luisiana. Sánchez Suárez, José Antonio. Las Palmas de G.C.: Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Servicio de Publicaciones. p. 103. ISBN84-88412-62-2. OCLC 30624482.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Garcia, Ofelia (2015). "Racializing the Language Practices of U.South. Latinos: Impact on Their Education". In Cobas, Jose; Duany, Jorge; Feagin, Joe (eds.). How the United States Racializes Latinos. Routledge. pp. 102–105.
^ Lipski 2008, pp. 214–216.
^ Abernathy (1976), p. 25, cited in Lipski (1987), p. 119
^ Lipski (1987), p. 119.
^ Van Young, Eric (2001). The Other Rebellion: Popular Violence, Ideology, and the Mexican Struggle. Stanford University Press. p. 324. ISBN978-0-8047-4821-6.
^ Lozano, Rosina (2018). An American language : the history of Spanish in the United States. Oakland, California. ISBN978-0-520-29706-7. OCLC 1005690403.
^ ^a ^b Guadalupe Valdés et al., Developing Minority Language Resources: The Example of Spanish in California (Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters, 2006), 28–29.
^ Martin, Daniel W. (2006). Henke's California Law Guide (8th ed.). Newark: Matthew Bough & Co. pp. 45–46. ISBN08205-7595-X.
^ Winchester, J. (1850). The Statutes of California Passed At The Commencement Session of the Legislature. San Jose: California Country Printer. p. 51.
^ McMurray, Orrin K. (July 1915). "The Beginnings of the Community Property Organisation in California and the Adoption of the Common Law" (PDF). California Police Review. 3 (5): 359–380. doi:10.2307/3474579. JSTOR 3474579. Retrieved 9 September 2020.
^ ^a ^b Crawford, James (1997). "Puerto Rico and Official English". Language Policy.
^ Lipski 2008, p. 169.
^ Lipski 2008, p. 171.
^ ^a ^b Drew Walker (2010). "A Countries and Their Cultures: Venezuelan American". Countries and their cultures. Retrieved December 10, 2011.
^ Man, Anthony. "After making Southward Florida dwelling house, Venezuelans turning to politics". Sun Spotter . Retrieved 30 May 2021.
^ del Valle, Jose (2006). "US Latinos, la hispanofonia, and the Language Ideologies of Loftier Moderinty". In Mar-Molinero, Clare; Stewart, Miranda (eds.). Globalization and Language in the Spanish-Speaking Globe: Macro and Micro Perspectives. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 33–34.
^ "What is the time to come of Spanish in the United states of america?". Pew Inquiry Heart. five September 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ Language Utilise and English-Speaking Ability: 2000. Census.gov.
^ "The Future of Castilian in the The states". Retrieved five March 2015.
^ Data Admission and Dissemination Systems (DADS). "American FactFinder – Results". Archived from the original on 12 February 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2015.
^ "Main language spoken at dwelling house past people anile v or older". United States Census Bureau. 2010. Archived from the original on 2020-02-12.
^ Nasser, Haya El (January two, 2015). "Candidates Facing More Latino Voters Who Don't Speak Spanish". Al Jazeera.
^ Furman, Nelly (December 2010). "Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in United states Institutions of Higher Education, Autumn 2009" (PDF). The Modern Language Association of America. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-12-13. Retrieved 2020-04-22 .
^ "U.S. children from Castilian-speaking households experience higher charge per unit of obesity than those from English-speaking families". Endocrine Society. 2021-03-20. Retrieved 2022-03-06 .
^ Li, Hang Long; Tsoi, Human Fung; Feng, Qi; Cheung, Ching-Lung; Cheung, Tommy; Cheung, Bernard M Y (iii May 2021). "Prevalence of Babyhood Obesity in the Us 1999 - 2018: A 20-Year Analysis". Periodical of the Endocrine Order. 5 (Supplement_1): A24–A25. doi:x.1210/jendso/bvab048.047.
^ Bills, Garland D.; Vigil, Neddy A. (xvi Dec 2008). The Castilian Language of New Mexico and Southern Colorado : A Linguistic Atlas. University of New United mexican states Press. ISBN9780826345516.
^ ^a ^b Cobos 2003
^ Cobos 2003, pp. 10–xi.
^ "Sec. 2054.001." Texas Legislature. Retrieved on June 27, 2010.
^ Oppenheimer, Robert (1985). "Acculturation or assimilation: Mexican immigrants in Kansas, 1900 to World State of war Two". The Western Historical Quarterly. 16 (four): 429–448. doi:10.2307/968607. JSTOR 968607.
^ "U.S. Demography Bureau QuickFacts: Liberal, KS". U.S. Census Bureau. 2017.
^ "U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Dodge City, KS". U.Due south. Census Agency. 2018.
^ "U.Southward. Census Bureau QuickFacts: Garden Urban center, KS". U.S. Census Bureau. 2018.
^ Alanis, Kaitlyn (June thirteen, 2018). "As the Latino population grows in this rural expanse, youths are developing a new accent". The Wichita Hawkeye.
^ "Hispanic Media Sources in Kansas". USDA National Resource Conservation Service.
^ [two], Leeman, Jennifer (2007) "The Value of Spanish: Shifting Ideologies in United states of america Language Teaching." ADFL Message 38 (1–ii): 32–39.
^ Richard I. Brod "Foreign Language Enrollments in United states of america Institutions of Higher Education—Fall 1986". Archived from the original on Nov 25, 2001. Retrieved September 1, 2016. . AFL Bulletin. Vol. 19, no. 2 (January 1988): 39–44
^ Goldberg, David; Looney, Dennis; Lusin, Natalia (February 2015). "Enrollments in Languages Other Than English in United States Institutions of Higher Education, Fall 2013" (PDF). Modern Linguistic communication Association. Retrieved May xx, 2015.
^ D.M. Levine (2012-01-19). "As Hispanic Television Market Grows, Univision Reshuffles Executives". Adweek . Retrieved 2013-10-02 .
^ Todd Chambers, "The country of Castilian-language radio." Journal of Radio Studies xiii.ane (2006): 34–l.
^ Jorge Reina Schement, "The Origins of Spanish-Language Radio: The Case of San Antonio, Texas," Journalism History 4:2 (1977): 56–61.
^ Félix F. Gutiérrez and Jorge Reina Schement, Castilian-Language Radio in the Southwestern Usa (Austin: UT Center for Mexican American Studies, 1979).
^ Andrew Paxman, "The Rise of United states of america Spanish-Language Radio From 'Expressionless Airtime' to Consolidated Buying (1920s–1970s)." Journalism History 44.3 (2018).
^ Dolores Inés Casillas, Sounds of belonging: US Spanish-language radio and public advocacy (NYU Press, 2014).
^ "Castilian Accents Spoken in the United States". BBC. November 25, 2019. Retrieved Nov 25, 2019.
^ Hashemite kingdom of jordan, Miriam (April iv, 2012). "'Hispanics' Similar Clout, Not the Characterization". The Wall Street Journal.
^ "Misión". Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española . Retrieved March 23, 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-condition (link)
^ ""Amenaza para la seguridad"". Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española . Retrieved March 23, 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-condition (link)
^ ""Esto es": copia hispana de la redacción anglo". Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española . Retrieved March 23, 2001. {{cite spider web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
^ Villarreal, Belén (2013). "Why Los Angeles Castilian Matters". Voices. 1 (1).
^ ^a ^b Villarreal, Belén (2014). Dialect Contact amid Spanish-Speaking Children in Los Angeles (PhD). UCLA. Retrieved 2021-05-29 .
^ Lipski 2008, pp. 56–64.
^ Lipski, John M. (1999) [1993]. "Creoloid phenomena in the Spanish of transitional bilinguals" (PDF). Castilian in the United States. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 155–182. doi:10.1515/9783110804973.155. ISBN9783110165722.
^ Benmamoun, Elabbas; Montrul, Silvina; Polinsky, Maria, (2010) White Paper: Prologmena to Heritage Linguistics Harvard University
^ Chang, C. B, Yao, Y., Haynes, E. F, & Rhodes, R. (2009). Product of Phonetic and Phonological Dissimilarity by Heritage Speakers of Mandarin. UC Berkeley PhonLab Annual Written report, 5. Retrieved from https://escholarship.org/uc/item/5p6693q0
^ Oh, Janet S; Jun, Sun-Ah; Knightly, Leah Yard; Au, Terry Kit-fong (2003-01-01). "Holding on to childhood language memory". Noesis. 86 (3): B53–B64. doi:ten.1016/S0010-0277(02)00175-0. ISSN 0010-0277. PMID 12485742. S2CID 30605179.
^ Lipski, John M. (2016). "Dialectos del Español de América: Los Estados Unidos" (PDF). In Gutiérrez-Rexach, Javier (ed.). Enciclopedia de Lingüística Hispánica (in Spanish). Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. pp. 363–374. doi:10.4324/9781315713441. ISBN978-1138941380.
^ Potowski, Kim. "El futuro de la lengua española en Estados Unidos". Youtube. Archived from the original on 2021-11-13. Retrieved March 18, 2021.
^ Aaron, Jessi Elana; Esteban Hernández, José (2007), "eighteen. Quantitative evidence for contact-induced adaptation", Castilian in Contact, Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company, pp. 327–341, doi:ten.1075/impact.22.23aar, ISBN978-90-272-1861-2 , retrieved 2021-03-xix
^ Melgarejo & Bucholtz (2020) mentions "Miami Castilian"
^ Waltermire & Valtierrez (2017), citing Vigil (2008) for the depression frequency of the trill in northern New Mexico
^ Torres Cacoullos, Rena; Ferreira, Fernanda (2000). "Lexical frequency and voiced labiodental-bilabial variation in New Mexican Spanish" (PDF). Southwest Journal of Linguistics. 19 (2): 1–17. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
^ ^a ^b Timm, Leonora A. (1976). "Three consonants in Chicano Castilian: /x/, /b/ and /d/". Bilingual Review / La Revista Bilingüe. 3 (2): 153–162. JSTOR 25743678.
^ Phillips, Robert (1982) [1974]. "Influences of English language on /b/ in Los Angeles Spanish". In Amastae, Jon; Elías-Olivares, Lucia (eds.). Spanish in the United States: Sociolinguistic Aspects. New York: Cambridge Academy Printing. pp. 71–81. ISBN9780521286893.
^ Smead, Robert; Clegg, J Halvor. "English language Calques in Chicano Castilian". In Roca, Ana; Jensen, John (eds.). Spanish in Contact: Bug in Bilingualism. p. 127.
^ ^a ^b Lipski 2008, pp. 226–229.
^ Silva-Corvalan, Carmen (September 1986). "Bilingualism and Language Change: The Extension of Estar in Los Angeles Castilian". Language. 62 (iii): 587–608. doi:ten.2307/415479. JSTOR 415479.
^ Gutiérrez, Manuel J. (1997). "On the Hereafter of the Futurity Tense in the Spanish of the Southwest". In Silva-Corvalán, Carmen (ed.). Spanish in four continents: studies in language contact and bilingualism. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press. pp. 214–226. ISBN9780878406494.
^ Waltermire, Mark (21 July 2014). "The social conditioning of mood variation in the Spanish of Albuquerque, New Mexico". Sociolinguistic Studies. 8 (1): 111–137. doi:ten.1558/sols.v8i1.111. Retrieved 27 March 2022.
^ Roque Mateos, Ricardo (2017). A Good Spanish Book. University Academic Editions. p. 37.
^ Faries, David (2015). A Brief History of the Spanish Language. University of Chicago Printing. p. 198.
^ López, Miguel R. (2001). "Disputed History and Poetry: Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá's Historia de la Nueva México". Bilingual Review / La Revista Bilingüe. 26 (1): 43–55. ISSN 0094-5366. JSTOR 25745738.
^ González, Christopher (2017). Permissible narratives : the promise of Latino/a literature. Columbus. ISBN978-0-8142-7582-5. OCLC 1003108988.
^ Fagan, Allison (2019-09-20). "Latinx Theater in the Times of Neoliberalism past Patricia A. Ybarra, and: Permissible Narratives: The Promise of Latino/a Literature by Christopher González (review)". MELUS: Multi-Ethnic Literature of the U.S. 44 (three): 197–201. doi:10.1093/melus/mlz028. ISSN 1946-3170.